Venture Management Essay Example Pdf - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2213 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Case study Did you like this example? Walton Construction (Qld) Pty Ltd v Venture Management Resources International Pty Ltd Walton Construction Pty Ltd (Walton) entered into a building contract with Venture Management Resources International Pty Ltd (VMR) for completion of works. Walton provided VMR with an unconditional bank guarantee as security to cover its financial commitment under the contract. Walton submitted a progress payment claim toVMR and in response, the Superintendent from VMR issued a progress certificate certifying that payment was to be madeto Walton as per the existing contract. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Venture Management Essay Example Pdf" essay for you Create order The contract required the Superintendent to allow in a payment certificate amounts otherwise due from the Contractor to the Principal arising out of or in connection with the Contract. The Superintendent disputed the amount of the payment claim from Walton and calculated a variation to the payment of claim. The adjusted claim amount reflected the cost of resolving allegedly defective work as well as an amount of liquidated damages for late completion. In respect of calculating deductions for defective works, clause 35.3 of the Contract permitted the Superintendent to issue directions to the Contractor to correct material or work. If the Contractor failed to comply with the direction within the required notice period, then the Superintendent was entitled to request an amount due from the Contractor to the Principal for correcting the defective works based on the lowest of three quotes received from independent contractors. The Contract further provided that if the Contractor failed to make payment pursuant to the payment certificate within a stipulated time, then the Principal may have access to the security. The Contract further provided that if the Contractor failed to make payment pursuant to the payment certificate within a stipulated time, then the Principal may have access to the agreed bank guarantee security provided in the contract. Walton applied for an injunction restraining the principal from accessing the security because the superintendent failed to comply with the certification process under the contract and the superintendent was unlicensed and therefore the certification was invalid and had nil effect.[1] The courtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s reasoning for granting the injunction for Walton stemmed from the superintendent failing to comply with the strict certification requirements under the payment provisions stipulated. Walton argued that the superintendent didnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t comply with a clause within the contract and therefore the payment certificate was invalid. Walton, as the contractor invoked the process of dispute against the superintendentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s certification. This was expressed through seeking an expert review of the certification, which had not yet reached completion at the time of litigation. Walton argued that the obvious commercial purpose or common sense of business was to prevent recourse to security where the contractor was in the process of disputing the Principalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rights. The court found that the superintendent was not licensed under section 42 of the Queensland Building Services Authority Act 1992, this also contributed the courtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision to grant an injunction and evidenced the deficiency of the certificate. The fact that Walton would suffer irreparable harm regarding the reputation of the building industry expresses the courtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s reasoning for granting the injunction. It should be noted that the injunction is not a perman ent resolution and awaits a full hearing in order to determine the necessity of this.[2] This is consistent with Vos Construction and Joinery Qld Pty Ltd v Sanctuary Properties Pty Ltd 2007 whereby both cases claimed loss of industry reputation and irreparable harm regarding this reputation. The cases are somewhat different as Vos Constructionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s application was dismissed where Waltonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s application was held. It is agreed that the findings of the court in this case are compliant with the legislative provisions relevant to the inquisition. Therefore it is also agreed that the injunction was appropriately granted in regard to Walton. The finding of this case raise implications for future precedent regarding the administration of construction contracts as well as the necessity to follow contractual processes in order for an entitlement to payment before a call upon a guarantee is made or foreshadowed. [3] Vos Construction Joinery Qld Pty Ltd v Sanctuary Properties Pty Ltd Anor [2007] QSC 332 In August 2005, the respondents, joint venturerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Sanctuary Properties Pty Ltd and MIRVAC Developments Pty Ltd (Sanctuary), entered into a contract with Vos Construction Joinery Qld Pty Ltd (Vos) for the completion of building work. The negotiated Contract price was $7,010,606 and as per the terms of the contract Vos provided security in the form of a bank guarantee as assurance of financial viability and its intention to complete. During the course of the project the architect extended the date for practical completion from 29th November 2005 to 17th January 2006. Despite the extension, on 13 February 2006, Sanctuary notified Vos of its intention to claim liquidated damages for failure to complete the project by the adjusted date for practical completion. The practical completion date was eventually achieved by Vos on 21st March 2006 and the architect issued the final certificate for the project on 8 June 2006. As a result on 12 June 2006, Vos disputed t he final certificate by notifying the architect in accordance with Clause C8 of the contract. Clause C8 required the architect to assess the dispute and give a written decision to Sanctuary within 10 working days. Vos also notified Sanctuary of same. On 25 June 2006, the architect, rejected Vosà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s submissions and concluded that the final certificate was valid and lawful. Sanctuary gave notice of its intention to draw on Vosà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ bank guarantee in the sum of $173,800 (the sum certified by the architect) on the same day.[4] The courtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s reasoning for dismissing the application was simply due to the fact that disputing the respondentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rights under clause A8 was not enough to prevent the respondent from drawing on security. This is because the clause would lack purpose if the process could be stopped by any unsuccessful disputation of the certificate. In considering Vosà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ application, the court addre ssed the financierà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s obligation and the principle of autonomy. The Court acknowledged that the financierà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s obligation in commercial instruments such as bank guarantees, is independent of the underlying contract. This means that a security provided under a construction contract mayprima faciebe called up unless there is a breach of a negative stipulation in the underlying contract which conditions the right to call it up. Rights to payment were also addressed, it was determined that they stand unless the payment certificate is negated. The court held that an unsuccessful dispute could not stall the debt recovery process because that would flout à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“business commonsenseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . The right to payment is independent of obligation to follow dispute resolution procedures. Sanctuaryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right to draw down the security for a debt owed was independent of its obligation to resolve its dispute with Vos in accordance with th e dispute resolution clauses under the Contract. The Court held that Sanctuary had the right to draw on the security even if the dispute between the parties had not proceeded to final resolution. Section 67J (2) of the Queensland Building Services Authority Act 1991, notice of a claim must be given within 28 days of a party becoming à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“aware, or ought reasonably to have become aware, of the contracting partyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right to obtain the amount owedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . The court determined that late application doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t prevent access to security because rights to such access did not accrue until the architectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s final certificate issued rejection of the dispute. This is because the respondents could not have been aware of right to obtain the amount under the contract until then. The court addressed Vosà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ reputation and found that the present application turned on questions of construction and not disputed factu al matters. It did not consider the argument of industry reputation as constituting a serious question to be tried. The court, for the above reasons, and in its discretion, found the balance of convenience to be in favour of not granting an interlocutory injunction. Kell Rigby Holdings Pty Ltd v Lindsay Bennelong Developments Pty Ltd Lindsay Bennelong Developments Pty Ltd negotiated and entered into a contract with Kell and Rigby Holdings Pty Ltd for the construction of a mixed residential and commercial development. The principal was also appointed to act as superintendent under the contract. It was agreed that the works would be completed in three stages. When the dispute arose only stage 1 had been completed with stages 2 and 3 still under construction. Two years into the project, the parties entered into an advance payment agreement, in which the principal agreed to advance the contractor a portion of the balance of the original contract sum to the value of $2 million. The deed of agreement provided for two advance payment bonds in the form of an unconditional bank guarantee of $1 million each. The contract also provided that, if the advance payments had not been repaid on or before the date of practical completion for stage 3, they would immediately become a debt due and payable by the contract or to the principal. In May 2010, stages 2 and 3 of the project sill had significant incomplete works that needed to be finished to a standard at which the sales to purchasers could be transacted. In June 2010, the principal, acting in its capacity as superintendent, issued both: a notice of variation to works, which deleted the remaining stage 2 works and the remainder of the incomplete stage 3 works from the scope (the variation instruction); and A certificate of practical completion in respect of the stage 3 works. The principal also served a demand on the bank for the full payment of the guarantees. This was supported by the issue of the certificate of practical completion, and the requirements of the contract which noted that the balance of the advance payments outstanding on the date of the issue of the certificate of practical completion immediately became a debt due and payable. In response the contractor disputed the right of the principal to call on the guarantees on the basis that the principal was not permitted to do so as the variation instruction and resulting issue of the certificate of practical completion were not valid and therefore unenforceable. The court established that the superintendent did not act reasonably in issuing the variation Instruction or the certificate of practical completion on the following grounds: The superintendent did not display adequate consideration to the contractors interests The superintendent did not act with objectivity or with the de gree of impartiality that is required In regards to the stage 2 works, by bringing about practical completion, in lieu of terminating the works, the superintendent maintained the defects liability obligations which in turn disadvantaged the contractor The exclusion of the works through a variation instruction was motivated by improper considerations. Therefore it was found that the variation instruction was a way by which the principal could take control of the project rather than a means to bring about suitable variations to the works The superintendent did not confer or negotiate with the contractor regarding the variation prior to it being issued. The superintendent noted that the current progress of the works was a risk to the principal and as such issued the variation instruction, not in its capacity as superintendent, but in its role as principal which could be regarded as a conflict of interest. There was no proof that the superintendent took account of the pro bable disadvantage of the contractor in the issuing of the certificate of practical completion. As a result, the court found that the superintendent did not act reasonably and the certificate of practical completion was deemed to be impaired as a result. Having now concluded that the superintendent did not act fairly, it was no longer deemed necessary for the court to consider if it acted unconscionably in issuing the notice of practical completion. In summary it can be established that superintendent did not act fairly and reasonably. Therefore it is suggested that appointing an external and impartial superintendent to scrutinise and monitor the allocation of risk throughout the course of the contract is advisable as it should provide a superior degree of both real and perceived independence. References Alden, S. and Eather, A. (2010). Superintendents Wearing Two Hats Risk Abuse Of Power. [online] Available at: https://www.mondaq.com/australia/x/109850/Property+Litigation/Superintendents+Wearing+Two+Hats+Risk+Abuse+Of+Power [Accessed 7 Oct. 2014]. Herbertgeer, (n.d.). Jumping through hoops: How not to call on a bank guarantee. [online] Available at: https://herbertgeer.e-newsletter.com.au/link/id/zzzz4dcb1c9dceab5234/page.html?extra=zzzz4dca0b87bf72d290 [Accessed 7 Oct. 2014]. Kell Rigby Holdings Pty Ltd v Lindsay Bennelong Developments Pty Ltd [2014] (NSWSC). King Wood Mallesons, (2010). Unconditional bank guarantees: not always a done deal. [online] Available at: https://www.mallesons.com/publications/marketAlerts/2010/ConstructionInsights/Pages/Unconditional-bank-guarantees-not-always-a-done-deal.aspx [Accessed 7 Oct. 2014]. Vos Construction Joinery Qld Pty Ltd v Sanctuary Properties Pty Ltd [2007] (QSC). Walton Construction (Qld) Pty Ltd v Venture Management Resources International Pty Ltd [2010] (QSC). Wilson, J. (2010). Cashing Bank Guarantees: Not Always An Easy Process. [online] Available at: https://www.mondaq.com/australia/x/106120/Building+Construction/Cashing+Bank+Guarantees+Not+Always+An+Easy+Process [Accessed 7 Oct. 2014]. Yap, B. (2014). Vos Construction Joinery Qld Pty Ltd v Sanctuary Properties. [online] Mallesons.com. Available at: https://www.mallesons.com/publications/marketAlerts/2008/Documents/9357337w.htm [Accessed 7 Oct. 2014]. [1] https://herbertgeer.e-newsletter.com.au/link/id/zzzz4dcb0f4dde222275/page.html [2] [3] [4] https://www.mallesons.com/publications/marketAlerts/2008/Documents/9357337w.htm

Support of the Death Penalty Essay - 689 Words

I do support the death penalty and I do not consider it cruel or unusual treatment. The Constitution itself indicates that the death penalty can be used. Amendment V of the Constitution states that â€Å"†¦no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law†¦.† (U.S. Const., amend V). In other words, once a person has gone through the due process of law, his life can be taken if he is found guilty. There is a common misconception that murderers do not think about the end consequence. If that was the case, there would be more killings by police than arrests. When murderers are confronted by policeman, they normally surrender because of the threat of the lethal weapon pointed at them. This is a conscious†¦show more content†¦(Pro Death Penalty, 2010). These statistics alone show that capital punishment is a deterrent to murder. In 1975 Isaac Ehrlich examined U.S time-series data for the period 1933–1969. In Ehrlich’s study, time-series data was data for the entire U.S. He used deterrent variables (the probabilities of arrest, conviction, and execution), demographic variables (population, fraction of nonwhites, fraction of people age 14–24), economic variables (labor force participation, unemployment rate, real per capita permanent income, per capita government expenditures, and per capita expenditures on police), and a time variable. His findings indicated a big negative relationship between the murder rate and execution rate. In conclusion, he estimated that each execution resulted in approximately seven or eight fewer murders. (Ehrlich’s study as cited Shepherd, 2004). I think that capital punishment has been applied fairly in our justice system. The cases that could possibly involve a death sentence are tried by a jury of our peers. I feel that with a jury, human perspective and compassion comes into play. If the crime was such as a mother killing the killer of her child, the pain and suffering of the mother is usually taken into consideration. Such cases where the murder or rape was heinously vicious with no sense of motive or remorse, this is also taken into consideration. DNA has proven that many people who were convicted and sentence to die wereShow MoreRelatedIn Support of the Death Penalty3813 Words   |  16 PagesIn Support of the Death Penalty Introduction From the ethical perspective of philosopher John Rawls who said that justice should be described asâ€Å" a fair system of arrangements; one that the parties can agree to without knowing how it will benefit them personally† , the death penalty must be considered just and right as it creates a fair balance between the act that has been committed and the punishment that has been dealt (Williams 78). Rawls supports theRead MoreThe Death Penalty And Why I Support It1232 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction â€Å"Death row is a nightmare to serial killers and ax murderers† (Grisham). It definitely should be. Today i m going to talk to you about the death penalty and why I support it. America is split on the issue of the death penalty. Acording to proccon.org 31 states currently allow the death penalty while there are 19 states that do not ( â€Å"Top 10 Pros and Cons - Death Penalty - ProCon.org†). I find the topic of the death penalty very interesting and it is something that I feel stronglyRead MoreEssay about I Cannot Support The Death Penalty960 Words   |  4 Pagesapplication of the Death Penalty by many states. When we discussed this policy while I was in a Bible class in high school, I could not decide if I was for or against the Death Penalty. For instance are we supposed to forgive our neighbors of their sins, or is it an eye for an eye? After some research and some careful consideration I have come to an opinion concerning the death penalty. I cannot support it. I cannot support it for several reasons. These reasons include, the cost of a death sentence, theRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is A Controversial Issue1171 Words   |  5 PagesThe death penalty is a very controversial topic worldwide. People are either for the death penalty, or against it, and there is usually no changing their mind by introducing arguments that are contrary to their opinion. The death penalt y debate is not a new one, â€Å"capital punishment [has been] practiced since colonial times despite persistent debates† (Jost). However, it was around the 1960s when countries began to abolish, or strictly restrain the death penalty (Jost). The death penalty has existedRead MoreA Critical Analysis of the Death Penalty1646 Words   |  7 Pagesdebate on whether or not the death penalty should be abolished has been ongoing for quite a long period of time. While there are those who believe that the death penalty does not serve its intended purpose, proponents of the same are convinced that the relevance of the same cannot be overstated and hence it should not be abolished. In this text, I examine the arguments for and against the death penalty. The Death Penalty: A Brief Overview In basic terms, the death penalty according to Stearman isRead MoreThe Death Penalty : A Multi Level Analysis Of Public Opinion1179 Words   |  5 PagesIn society, the death penalty is used to punish those who had committed certain types of crimes. Over the years, the percentage of US citizens supporting the death penalty has decrease, however Proximally 64%-70% of the population still support it. The majority of the polls created to evaluate the opinion of citizens on the death penalty use simple questions to address the issue. Those questions separate people into those against it and those supporting it. The death penalty opinion is more complexRead MoreArgumentative Essay On The Death Penalty957 Words   |  4 PagesThe death Penalty is a very controversial topic to many. Some believe that the death penalty should not only be in place but there should be more executions every year. While others believe that the death penalty is going out of style and it is not serving its purp ose of deterring crime as it did before. Although there are many claims supporting both sides still over half of Americans are for capital punishment in some way, but what causes someone to be sentenced to death? According to the articleRead MoreEssay on Summary: the Changing Nature of Death Penalty Debates.894 Words   |  4 Pageshow the death penalty argument has changed in the last 25 years in the United States. They examine six specific issues: deterrence, incapacitation, caprice and bias, cost innocence and retribution; and how public opinion has change regarding these issues. They argue that social science research is changing the way Americans view the death penalty and suggest that Americans are moving toward an eventual abolition of the death penalty. The authors describe the history of the death penalty statuesRead MoreCapital Punishment : Is It Ethical?983 Words   |  4 Pagesmorals and ethical views there are people who agree and disagree with what is and is not ethical. The death penalty is one of these things that people cannot agree whether it is ethical to do or not. My article focuses on how big names in politics feel about capital punishment and whether they stand for it or not. Capital punishment is when someone commits a horrible crime they can be put on death row, and then they will be killed as punishment for the crime that they have committed. Before readingRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Endorsed: An Opinion Essay649 Words   |  3 PagesThe Death Penalty: The debate regarding the death penalty is an issue that has continued to attract huge controversies in the past few years. Consequently, public opinion about the death penalty has relatively changed in the recent years though this concept has less support unlike mid-1990s. The main reason for the minimal support of the death penalty originates from the fact that its proponents cite similar reasons to those provided by its supporters two decades ago. The major factors that have

Cross Cultural Differences and Communication †Free Samples

management Question: Discuss about the Cross Cultural Differences and Communication. Answer: In the era of globalization, cross-cultural communication deserves immediate critical attention, as companies from different parts across the globe participate in global trade, and lack of cultural awareness amongst the employees, both the natives and the expatriates, has been identified as a chief reason behind organizational failure. The reviewed research articles clearly established that although shared profitability or difference in time-zone often impede the smooth cooperation amongst the nations in case of cross-cultural trade, inadequate cross-cultural competence remain the topmost reason behind organizational failure. Cross-cultural competence refers to the ability of an employee of one culture to develop an understanding about the employees coming from a different culture, and his ability to engage actively in conversation (both personal and professional) in a professional set-up[1] (Rozkwitalska 2010). Research has suggested that in a culturally diverse set-up, the employee s often lack the ability to comprehend, communicate with and effectively interact with the co-workers coming from different cultures. The difference in beliefs, ideological perceptions and norms not only affect an employees perception of its foreign worker, but can also influence his acceptability[2] (Vertamo 2014). Often the expatriate employees complain about lack of recruitment or promotional opportunity in a foreign set-up, which clearly shows the biased attitude influenced by cultural differences, as exhibited by the organization, as well as the cultural prejudices the expatriate employees are subject to. As far as cross-cultural interaction is concerned, linguistic differences amongst the native officials and the foreign officials, can be a major obstacle in smooth and effective interpersonal communication within the organization. Differences in cultural views and customs have been found to influence cross-cultural interaction in a negative way. Often, it has been observed, that the employees belonging to the egalitarian and individualistic nations, such as the US tend to voice their unfiltered opinions, attaching less importance to the organizational structure (Vertamo, 2014). On the other hand, the employees belonging to the collectivist nations, such as Japan tend to respect the organizational hierarchy, and get offended if a junior employee voices opinions before the senior manager can opine. Cultural barriers can always impede effective inter-cultural assimilation that in turn can certainly affect the motivation of the employees, and influence employee productivity in a negative way. Research has clearly shown the direct relation existing between effective cross-cultural interaction and employee motivation[3] (Johnson et al. 2006). Communication is a means by which employees express and exchange opinions, and engage in the decision-making process. Linguistic difference or difference in communication approach, caused by cultural differences, will always impede effective communication flow within the organization and affect the productivity growth. Hence, it has been recommended that companies in order to reduce the impact of cultural barriers on the communication style and process, should train the employees, especially the expatriate employees, in the native languages as well as soft skills. Proper cultural training needs to be imparted so that the employees do not face cultural prejudice, or encounter difficulty in assimilating a new, foreign culture in a new land. Similarly, the local staffs should also be trained so that they respect and appreciate the cultural differences, and try to cooperate with the expatriate employees, instead of discouraging effective communication. While cultural awareness and sensitivity need to be inculcated amongst the employees, as the same helps the employees become aware of cultural differences, and respect the same, cross-cultural intelligence nevertheless plays an equally important role in ensuring success of cross- cultural trade. The cross-cultural intelligence is defined as the ability of an employee to relate to culturally diverse situations, and work effectively, in a collaborative way with the individuals belonging to distinct cultural backgrounds. The importance of cultural intelligence lies in the fact that it allows the employees to gain a better understanding of cultures which in turn enables them to work in a positive and compassionate way with people belonging to different cultures. Thus, it is clearly evident that the intercultural intelligence is important as it creates in employees a more advanced knowledge of traditions, nationalities as well as the distinct corporate cultures and disciplines which are likely to have an impact on the business operation of a company[4] ( Thomas et al. 2017). In absence of cultural intelligence, the employees often lose job satisfaction and motivation, ultimately leading to organizational issues such as low retention rate, higher absenteeism and low productivity level. However, one of the most interesting and persuasive arguments forwarded in the articles, is the problem of ethnocentrism in cross-cultural trade. Often when the expatriate employees face problems in a new cultural set-up, the employees of the host country fail to analyse the problem objectively, and end up exhibiting a biased attitude. This lack of objective and transparent way of analysing the problem can easily affect the morale and motivation of the expatriate employee. Hence, the local staffs should be trained to eliminate the possibility of such culturally influenced decisions, while handling organizational issues involving expatriate employees. A news has been published in Marinelink on 25 Monday in the month of September in the year 2017. It has been written by Aiswarya Lakshmi (He will not be inserted as the name of the reporter as the name of the reporter was Aiswarya not Aishwarya) on September 8 of the same year. This new article is mainly depicting the news of the huge transport company of Japan called the Mitsui O.S.K lines or MOL establishing 2017 session of a project called 'One MOL Global Management College'. It was developed in the year 2014 with the sole aim of improvement of the different types of management skills in a cross cultural management. They also had a vision to develop the next generation of executives who will lead the MOL Groups global with proper cross cultural skills and knowledge[5] (Laxmi, 2017). They had invited 14 participants form 7 countries giving them an opportunity to meet and learn over the next four months. An interesting factor that was present in the project which aligned with the ar ticles provided was that it paid importance to energetic hand on sessions which focused on the themes of personal empowerment. This aligns with Johnsons article where he had stated that one of the most important model for cross cultural development would be the development of personal attributes like development of personal attributes, personal skills as well as development of cultural knowledge which would help in realizing ones own cultural features and at the same time provide respect, importance and interest in others culture being sensitive to the other culture. This would lead to personal empowerment as is influenced by MOL. This would help the individual to expand his horizon in cultural ideas and embrace all cultures with same importance as its own[6] (Stahl et al. 2015). This program had also helped in the establishment of different features for organizational management as well as strategic leadership. They also have stated that company besides promoting cultural confluenc e in workplace had also introduced MOL chart values which focus on companys values as well. The article by Rozwitalska aligns with it where the author had provided many organizational factors which culminated as cultural barriers. Mol has rightly taken the steps. They have also considered the organizational factors and have introduced strategies to handle the organizational initiatives to eliminate cultural barriers[7] (Pawloski and Bick 2015). Johnstons article has also shown how taking appropriate steps in managing institutional ethnocentrism so that it cannot impair an employees ability to work effectively with other national groups. Johnston has also mentioned about how proper leadership styles with ambition, courage, curiosity, decisiveness, enthusiasm, fortitude, integrity, judgment, loyalty, perseverance, self-efficacy, tolerance for ambiguity can also help in managing not only personal attributes but also multicultural teams successfully. Mol has also allowed the participant s to come with their own innovations to develop the company which aligns with their both the articles recommendations about reducing the cultural distance providing them the scope to feel respects and integrated in the organization. They have also influenced the participants to develop a sense of ownership and using the values if Mol charts to participate in decision making. Thus Mol group had tightly taken initiatives to manage cross cultural management for increasing productivity and reputation of their company. News had been published in Luxembourg Wort on Sunday 24th September on the year 2017 about the multiculturism where business leaders, industry experts and minister of family affairs Integration and the Greater Region Corinne Cahenhad come together for a meet. The matter was placed under the highlight of the American Chamber of Commerce in Luxembourg(Amcham) andThe Network. They have provided importance to the Diversity Charter Ltzebuerg, a private-public initiative, launched in 2012 in their discussion inviting companies being members from different industries[8] (Multiculturalism: Making Diversity Work In Business And Society, 2017). Kary Bheemaiah, consultant at Uchange and author of The Blockchain Alternative book in the discussion had stated that interdisciplinary pesreoctive is very important resfarsding about an idniviudual look at things and how different individuals assume it. The discussion had put importance of Hofstedes theory where they have stated that cross-cultural com munication and looks at how individuals' values and understandings of culture impact their behaviour this feeling of the panel members are very much in lieu with the Johnsons article which states that person aspects both at intra-individual as well as inter-individual or universal traits become important in assessing a persons outlook towards other culture. Rozkwitalska had also provided several individual rooted aspects which may act as cultural barriers and thereby may alter an individuals behaviour towards other cultures. The author had stated that making assumptions in cross cultural assumptions, possible Pygmalion effect, weak communication, ethnocentrism and others all lead to behaviour changes that may become insensitive to a culturally different people[9] (Mor, Morris and Joe 2013). The meeting had finalized that several training sessions hosted by Hofstede Centre-certified intercultural experts will be conducted in next six months staring form October 14 which will bring ou t initiatives to overcome such biasness of individuals and help organizational to overcome their cultural barriers. Johnston in his article had noted the comment of another writer that Cross-cultural training enables the individual to learn both content and skills that will facilitate effective cross-cultural interaction by reducing misunderstandings and inappropriate behaviors. Although Johnstons planned model is not followed in the initiatives but components of her model were introduced like proper formation and modification of Personal attributes and Institutional ethnocentrism. References: "Multiculturalism: Making Diversity Work In Business And Society". 2017.Wort.Lu. https://www.wort.lu/en/luxembourg/multiculturalism-making-diversity-work-in-business-and-society-59c538e556202b51b13c3b25. Johnson, James P., Tomasz Lenartowicz, and Salvador Apud. "Cross-cultural competence in international business: Toward a definition and a model."Journal of International Business Studies37, no. 4 (2006): 525-543. Kersiene, Kristina, and Asta Savaneviciene. "The Formation and Management of Organizational Competence Based on CrossCultural Perspective."Engineering Economics65, no. 5 (2015). Lakshmi, Aiswarya. 2017. "MOL Launches 2017 Session Of 'One MOL Global Management College'".Marinelink. https://www.marinelink.com/news/management-launches429220 Mor, S., Morris, M.W. and Joh, J., 2013. Identifying and training adaptive cross-cultural management skills: The crucial role of cultural metacognition.Academy of Management Learning Education,12(3), pp.453-475. Pawlowski, J.M. and Bick, M., 2015. The global knowledge management framework: Towards a theory for knowledge management in globally distributed settings.Lead. Issues Knowl. Manag. Vol. Two,2, p.134. Rozkwitalska, Ma?gorzata. "Barriers of cross-cultural interactions according to the research findings."Journal of Intercultural Management2, no. 2 (2010): 37-52. Stahl, Gnter K., and Rosalie L. Tung. "Towards a more balanced treatment of culture in international business studies: The need for positive cross-cultural scholarship."Journal of International Business Studies46, no. 4 (2015): 391-414. Thomas, David C., and Mark F. Peterson.Cross-cultural management: Essential concepts. Sage Publications, 2017. Vertamo, Hannes. "Cross-Cultural Management." (2014).

WW II Essay Example For Students

WW II Essay World War II World War II was one of the deadliest and most destructivewars this world has seen. The origins of the war were in Germany whereAdolf Hitler became the leader and started ethnic cleansing, killing anyJewish person, gypsy, homosexual or any other person whom he consideredinferior. Another cause of the war was the attempted invasion of Ethiopiaby Italy, which they eventually occupied in 1936 despite British and Frenchopposition. Germany appeared to be winning the war, taking over theRhineland, Czechoslovakia,France, Belgium and other pieces of land, up until 1942 when the tidesturned in favor of the Allies. The Japanese naval airpower was devastatedby the Americans and Hitler had recently been defeated at Moscow. Shortlyafter Italy was defeated and expelled from the war and Germanys forceswere slowly deteriorated. The war officially ended when the Japanesesurrendered following the detonation of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima andNagasaki. Hitler began holding meetings with o thers who thought like him,blaming Jewish people for the problems in Europe. The Communistscontinually tried to break up the meetings of the group who came to beknown as the National Socialist Party in 1923. TheNational Socialist Party, led by Goering, Hess, Rosenberg, and Roehm, wasoutraged with France for occupying the Ruhr. In 1924 Hitler was sentencedto a four-year prison term for a demonstration where twenty people werekilled. He only ended up serving thirteen months of the term but itprovided sufficient time for him to outline his book Mein Kampf, whichmeans My Struggle in German. The President of the German State, MarshalHindenburg, was eighty-three years old as of 1930 and was persuaded to viewHitler as the nextChancellor of the Reich. Hitler was called to Berlin by the President andonJanuary thirtieth, 1933 he became the Chancellor of Germany. Hitlers firstacquisition was his reoccupation of the Rhineland, a small portion ofwesternGermany in 1936. Just three years later Ger man soldiers had already takenoverCzechoslovakia. In early September of the same year Germany took overPoland,France and Great Britain declare war on Germany, and Norway, Portugal,Spain, and Ireland all declare neutrality. Later in the year Turkey signs apact withBritain and France giving them mutual assistance and the Soviets attackFinland. In April of 1940 the Danish king announced that Norway was surrendering toGermany and one month later Belgium does the same. France, under constantattack, gave into Germany in mid June. Italy, sided with Germany, decidesthat it needs control of the Suez Canal so it invades Egypt on Septemberthirteenth. In October after Hitlers constant nagging, Spain joins the war in exchangefor military, agricultural, and territorial demands. On June twenty-second,1941Germany begins Operation Barbarossa, the code name for the invasion of theU.S.S.R. Hitlers plan was to have his army, 3,200,000 men, split intothree groups; one moving north towards Leningrad, one moving towardsMoscow, and one moving south towards Kiev. By the time his army had takenKiev it was alreadySeptember and as they moved north towards Moscow winter set in early. Hitlers forces were stuck in the bitter cold of winter. In December aSoviet counter-attack forced the Germans to withdraw from Moscow. This wasthe first sign that Hitlers powerful army could in fact be stopped andthat he was bound to make a mistake at some time. Another Allied force, theBritish, were also having good luck. In Libya the British were able tosplit the army under Rommel, forcing him to retreat. Early in the morningof December seventh, 1941 a fleet of 189 Japanese aircraft began attackingPearl Harbor, Hawaii. The first wave of planes destroyed anything it couldfind, including American aircraft, battleships, destroyers, cruisers, andsubmarines. The second wave followed shortly and attacked everything thefirst wave had missed. Anti-aircraft fire was able to deter a third wave,but an incredible amount of damage had already happened. In only one hour,forty five minutes the Japanese air forces wrecked and capsized twobattleships and three were resting on the bottom. Nineteen w ar ships hadbeen hit and 150 aircraft had been disabled. In all over 2,400American lives were lost, 2,086 from the Navy and 237 from the Army. As aresult of the bombing of Pearl Harbor the United States, with many of theLatinAmerican countries, declared war on Germany, Japan and Italy. Although manycountries declared war against the Axis nations, only the United States,Brazil, and Mexico actually sent troops to fight. At this point the warstarted to turn in favor of the Allies. The first major win for theAmerican forces was at theBattle of the Coral Sea. After the dust settled at Coral Sea the Japaneselost three heavy cruisers, two destroyers, and more than twenty otherships. Just a month later the Americans won another decisive battle atMidway. American forces spotted the Japanese fleet before it was able to doany extensive damage to the island. By the end of the battle the Japanesewere in full retreat after the loss of four carriers, two large cruisers,three destroyers, and variou s other auxiliary craft. In the U.S.S.R. theGermans had resumed their offensive, now with their primary target asCaucasus, for the oil, and their secondary target as Stalingrad. TheGermans had a chance to attack Stalingrad while it was nearly defenseless,however they waited and attacked after Soviet reinforcements arrived. Itappeared as though they would capture Caucasus but a fuel shortage plaguedthem. In October 1942 the German army had lost twenty-two divisions and therest were ordered by Hitler to fight to the last man against the reinforcedSoviets. 22,500 German soldiers under Paulus surrendered inside Caucasusafter losing nearly 200,000, 100,000 dead and 91,000 captured. The onlylogical place the Allies could find to attack was Italy, but they first hadto go throughSicily which was guarded by two islands, Pantelleria and Lampedusa. Eventhough the attack on Pantelleria destroyed only two of the fifty-four shorebatteries, the Italians flew a white flag when a ship neared the isl and. IT IS A CONTROVERSIAL SUBJECT ON NATURE OR NURTURE HAS A MORE PROFOUND EssayBulgaria removed itself from the war the next day. The Axis forces wererapidly losing forces and the war. Hitler was able to concentrate 250,000troops to a small area near the U.S. VIII Corps without foreignintelligence knowing. Early in the morning of December sixteenth, 1944Hitlers army attacked and brought complete surprise to the Allies, it wasknown as the Battle of the Bulge. Hitler himself thought up the plan, butactions by the Allies turned a nearly devastating onslaught into a stunningvictory. Ardennes, Bastogne, and St. Vith were all very important placesduring the Battle of the Bulge. At their highest point the Germans camewithin a few miles of the Meuse River and unknowingly passed by an Allysupply within a quarter mile. Germany continued to pour troops into thebattle which stabilized by Christmas Eve. When the skies finally clearedthe Allies aircraft began bombing the German armor and trains, wh ich wereat a near standstill. Hitler eventually decided to withdraw from theArdennes on January twenty-first, but only after losing 120,000 men. IwoJima was an important tactical position in the Pacific War and theAmericans were willing to sacrifice much for it. They sent in 60,000officers, followed by theFifth Fleet. By February twenty-seventh, 1945 the Americans had won overhalf the island and on March fifteenth the fighting stopped after nearly20,000American casualties. Okinawa was the last island needed before the directattack of Japan itself. Okinawa was invaded and quickly destroyed, followedby theTenth Army moving towards Japan. It was here that the kamikaze technique,flying an airplane with a warhead attached to it, against war ships andother targets. The Tenth Army was the largest amphibious movement in the Pacific War,comprised of 1,427 ships. Okinawa was readily waiting for the arrival ofthe Americans on the south side of the island, with 100,000 soldiers and anintricate system of fortification in the coral and limestone rock. TheJapanese fleet then came out and intercepted the American fleet. TheSoviets, after rapidly expelling theGermans from their own country, took a little longer to move into Germany. TheSoviets did go full force, sending all four of their armies into Germany,north and south of Breslau. By mid-February they had already taken overBunslau, which is a mere 125 miles from Berlin. Zhukov reached Oder, thenPosen along the WartaRiver, within sixty miles of Berlin. During February of 1945 the armies inthe west were having trouble making it up the Rhine. The U.S. Third Corpsfollowed the Germans over the Rhine Bridge after being commanded to Getfive divisions across as quickly as possible. by Eisenhower. The Americanswere able to get across the bridge so quickly that the Germans didnt evenhave time to demolish it. The U.S. First and Ninth Armies linked on Aprilfirst nearPaderborn and held the German Army Group B and two corps of Group H incaptivity. After constant air attacks the remaining 325,000 men and 30general officers surrendered. The Third U.S. Army took Frankfurt, thenKassel. TheSeventh U.S. Army crossed the Rhine near Worms and joined with the ThirdnearDarmstadt. A s a result of this massive movement of Allied forces, theGerman defense in the west basically fell apart. Eisenhower decided to haltmany of his troops, knowing that the Soviet forces would be coming throughon the other side, fearful that the two allies might mistake each other forenemy. TheAmericans met the Soviets at Torgau on April twenty-fifth. The Soviet armycontinued onward toward Berlin and had the city enveloped the same day. Hitler, choosing not to flee with many of his advisers, committed suicideon April thirtieth, knowing that there were Soviet forces just above hisbunker. TheBerlin forces surrendered on May second. The war on the front next to Italywas surrendered on April twenty-ninth. Mussolini, the ex-dictator of Italyand his mistress, were killed after attempting to escape from imprisonment. On May fifth a representative of Doenitz, the inherited leader of Germany,offered a surrender of all troops in Germany, Netherlands, Denmark, andSchleswig-Holstein. Even though the war had ended in Europe, the battle in the Pacificcontinued. Bombing Japan seemed to be the most effective way to eat away at theJapanese forces. On July sixteenth, 1945 news that the nuclear bomb atAlamogordo, NewMexico, was a success was rushed to President Truman. Even though the bombwas originally intended for Berlin, Truman decided that the weapons couldalso be used to force a quick surrender in the Pacific. On July twenty-sixth America joined Britain and China in issuing an ultimatum forunconditional surrender. OnAugust sixth, after Japan ignored the ultimatum, a B-29 bomber appearedoverHiroshima and then sped away. A few moments later the first atomic bomb tobe dropped on humans detonated, killing and injuring about half the cityspopulation, 320,000 people. Three days later a second atomic bomb wasdropped onNagasaki. The second bomb did less damage, killing and injuring 80,000people because the bomb was off target. On August tenth the Japanesedeclared that they would accept the terms of the Potsdam ultimatum. Thesecond world war was off icially over on September second, aboard theMissouri where the Japanese signed a document ending all fighting.

Please Visit Two Research Web Sites And Report On Them For The Rest Of

Please visit two research web sites and report on them for the rest of the class. Make sure your report is appropriate for your audience, fellow adult learners who will be doing a fairly comprehensive research project. RESEARCH SITES http://www.umuc.edu/library/ols.html University College Library Services http://www.bedfordbooks.com/rd/index.html Diana Hacker, Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age http://www.businesswire.com Business Wire electronically disseminates full-text news releases for public and investor relations professionals to news media, online services and databases, the Internet, and the investment community. http://www-sci.lib.uci.edu/HSG/Ref.html Martindale's: The Reference desk. This award-winning website contains links to thousands of reference resources; more efficient for some searches than using web search engines. http://www.americancomm.org/ American Communication Association. Communications law, including First Amendment issues; communication studies, including organizational, management, and intercultural communication; Internet resources. http://lcweb.loc.gov/ Library of Congress http://www.hbs.edu/dor Harvard Business School Search engine available to search among the documents in the Division of Research. http://search.amcity.com/baltimore Baltimore Business Journal, weekly publication on business news in Baltimore area. http://www.umuc.edu/library/evaluate.html Evaluating Internet Resources GUIDES TO ONLINE COLLOBORATION http://uclink.berkeley.edu:1607/11/NN/D.Richards_Peer_Editing Guide to Peer Editing (Richards) http://www.collaborate.com Home page of Collaborative Strategies: Strategies for Electronic Communication and Knowledge Management. Click on Publications and Resources. DOCUMENTATION INFORMATION http://www.bedfordbooks.com/rd/index.html Diana Hacker, Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age http://www.psych_web.com/resource/apacrib.htm APA Style Resources: Writing Manuals, Documentation, and Style Guides http://www.uvm.edu/~ncrane/estyles Xia Li and Nancy Crane, Bibliographic Formats for Citing Electronic Information. When you get the home page, select American Psychological Association (APA) Embellished Styles. (UMUC teachers usually prefer APA style over MLA style.) http://www.cas.usf.edu/english/walker/mla.html Janice Walker, MLA-Style Citations of Electronic Sources http://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/citation/table.html Introduction to Basic Legal Citation by Peter W. Martin, Cornell Law School

Initial Peopling of North America

Initial Peopling of North America Introduction The question of how and when human beings reached North and South America is an interesting topic of debate (Muckle 2010). Some general understandings and consensuses are that the native populations inherited their genetic pool from Asian groups that initially occupied Siberia before the last glacial period (Jablonski 2002). However, the actual time and process through which these groups reached America remains unknown (Dixon 2003).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Initial Peopling of North America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A number of theories attempt to address this question, but none of them provides adequate information to show how these groups reached the continents. In the recent times, genetic studies have proved to be effective in determining the relationship between the Native Americans and the Asian groups. In fact, these studies have shown that the American natives are closely r elated to a number of Asian groups. Several theories such as the Pacific Rim, Biringia, Solutrean and others have attempted to develop models that explain how the Asian groups reached America. The purpose of this paper is to analyze some of these postulates in order to draw some information that may provide a better understanding of the initial people of North America. Theoretical explanation of initial peopling in North America According to scholars in Linguistics, archaeology and evolutional biology, Native Americans moved from some places in Northeastern parts of Asia. During the last Ice Age, geographical conditions could not allow possible migrations of humans from Asia into America (Dickason 2007). Therefore, the most important task is to explain the route and time that allowed migrations from Asia to America. It is suggested that humans used two routes to reach America- the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia) and along the Northwest coast (watercraft methods). Based on this informa tion, a number of hypotheses have emerged to explain how the ancient people migrated into the New World, despite the large volume of ice. Two major hypotheses, the ice-free corridor and the coastal migration, tend to agree that the initial people of Americas had ancestral ties with populations that lived in Siberia and that the major route was via Beringia. Beringia, also known as the Bering Land Bridge, was a large ice-free area that connected north-west part of North America with north-eastern edge of Asia (Dickason 2007). Several Paleoenvironmental research studies have shown that the area on Beringia has a large volume of animals and plants, which acted as resources for the migrating humans. These resources supported the human populations during the entire late ice age, which suggests that the migration was in progress at this time.Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The ice-free corridor hypothesis The ice-free corridor hypothesis is considered one of the most effective models of addressing the migration question. This theory, which is based on the understanding that at various stages during the last Ice age, the northern part of America (Canada) was covered with two large sheets of ice (Burns 2006). The southern region of the ice sheets was approximately along the line that marks the modern boundary between the US and Canada. One of the sheets was covering most of the areas that lie to west of the Rocky Mountains while the other sheet was on the areas to the east of these mountains. It is believed that the sheets were joined during most of the last ice age, but they must have been separated, which provided a stretch of iceless land known as the ice-free corridor (Burns 2006). According to theorists, the ice-free corridor makes an important landmark during the migration into the new world. Proponents of this hypothesis believe that people from northeastern parts of Asia first reached Beringia and settled in this region for several years because the two sheets of ice had not separated. However, these populations increasingly moved closer to the areas bordering the ice as it increasingly became warmer. The theorists believe that the populations simply migrated down the corridor when it developed from warming up of the ice sheets (Dillehay 1994). Noteworthy, several animals were the first organisms to migrate down the corridor, which means that humans were following them. In fact, there is substantial information supporting this theory of migration, most of which tend to show that the increase in the human populations in Beringia must have forced some groups to move down the corridor in search of animal resources. For instance, Paleoenvironmental evidence suggests that this route was one of the most possible methods through which human and animal populations reached the northern part of the Americas. However, it is worth no ting that the theory is somehow weak because there is no archaeological evidence to support the hypothesis. In fact, there no archaeological sites in the ice-free corridor, especially the ones that older than 13,000 years, yet the theory attempts to explain that the migrations down the corridor must have taken place more than 15,000 years ago (Dickason 2007). This means that the theory cannot be relied on as the sole method of solving the migration problem. Nevertheless, the hypothesis provides some basic information as well as a platform for additional research to solve the question.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Initial Peopling of North America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Coastal migration hypothesis Secondly, the coastal migration hypothesis attempts to use a different approach to the migration problem. Theorists argue that rather than depending on the large number of animals as resources, the ea rly populations in Asia were largely adapted to the maritime and mostly lived on the coastlines, where food security was assured (Dickason 2007). Therefore, populations spread along the coastlines rather than the interior. This means that the populations migrated along the coastlines. They went round southern margins of the land in Beringia before moving down the west coast of the American continent until they passed the two large sheets of ice (Erlandson 2004). According to some variations of the hypothesis, the earliest populations used boats to move across large water masses before reaching the continent. However, other theorists suggest that it was possible to move on land along the coastlines because the large glaciers did not cover the entire land in the coast (Fladmark 2000). In fact, it is worth noting that most glaciers in the ice ages did not cover the coastlines, which gave some good environment for the survival of animals and plants. This phenomenon must have given the p opulations a chance to maintain foot travel to other continents. In the case of migration into the Americas, a number of evidence supports the coastal migration hypothesis. For instance, locations with a lot of animals and plants needed to maintain the human populations have been found along the coastlines that dates back to 18,000 (Fladmark 2000). This is an important finding because the age falls within the period in which humans populations from Asia migrated into the northern parts of Americas. However, it is clear that the hypothesis lacks archaeological support because there are no archaeological sites along the coastal region, with the few one dating less than 12,000 years. The implication is that there is a gap in knowledge in this explanation and that the theory can only be used as a platform or basis for further studies. In the 20th century, most scientists disputed this theory based on lack of archaeological evidence. They thought that the number of locations of animal an d plant life on the coastlines, which meant that the human populations could not have used a route devoid of these resources. Nevertheless, environmental studies are increasingly providing new information to support this hypothesis, especially because the populations are thought to have achieved maritime adaptations few years after glaciations (Erlandson 2001). These studies show that human populations stretched from Alaska to California during the migration period (Erlandson 1994).Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These two hypotheses are largely based on the knowledge on the Clovis culture, a big-game hunting culture that archaeologists identify as the main way of life among the Asian groups of people during the last ice age. According to Erlandson (1994), artefacts that had fluted and projectile points mainly characterize this culture. The first evidence of these tools was found at Clovis region in New Mexico, USA, following an excavation in 1932. Subsequent excavations reveal that the culture was prominent in all parts of North America and later moved to South America with the migrating groups. In particular, the culture was designated by the use of Clovis, a typical set of tools that had flaked flint and a â€Å"speared† point inserted into a flute-like object. The flute allowed users to insert and remove the point from the shaft when travelling. The flute is one of the most important aspects of the tools in use during human migrations. Carbon dating for Clovis culture has produced substantial information regarding the migration patterns from Asia to North America. Carbon dating these tools has been done in association with animal bones, which has revealed that the tools were used some 13,000 and 12,000 calendar years ago (Stanford and Bradely 2012). Despite this, a number of studies have produced controversial evidence that seems to argue that the tools may not be the most important way of explaining the migrations. For instance, it has been shown that at least 11 out of 22 sites excavated have inherent problems. In fact, some studies indicate that even the sites at Clovis, New Mexico, are problematic. According to such studies, the datable samples in these sites have undergone contaminations due to their integration with earlier materials, rendering them useless in providing evidence to support the migration patterns. Noteworthy, the Younger Drayas Impact Event made an important and effective influence on the existence of the Clovis culture in North America . About 13,000 calendar years ago, the Younger Drayas event had a major impact on the populations, causing the decline of the culture. In addition, the Clovis culture is a relatively weak theory in explaining human migrations in North America. A number of problems are associated with this model. For instance, the model fails to explain why there was a short time between the time of human occupation in North America and their arrival at the south most tips of South America (Gruhn 2004). Humans radiated southwards from Asia to America and South America some 12,000 calendar years ago. This means that the time span used to propagate the populations from the northern end of North America to the southern tip of South America is very short, which shows that it was not possible, considering the geographical and environmental barriers at the time. In addition, evidence collected at the Monte Verde site in Chile has suggested that the Clovis model is relatively weak. Archaeological evidence f rom this site produced some radiocarbon evidence that predate Clovis sites found on the Midwest by more than 1,000 years (Erlandson, Graham, Bourque, Corbett, and Estes 2007). The evidence, however, provides support to the coastal migration model as the most possible route by which the human populations of the last ice age used to reach the south. It suggests that the populations that used the coastlines for migration were able to move fast than their counterparts who used inland migration routes. Noteworthy, a number of studies have shown that the populations had a wide range of food resources, including tubers, shellfish and turtles. This is an additional indication that humans did not rely on the big game culture that involved hunting mammoths, horses, longhorn bison and camels that were the primary food resources for the populations that followed the inland routes from Asia to North America. Charcoal evidence and other human artefacts have also led to confusions in explaining th e entry and existence of human populations in the New World. For instance, along the banks of River Savannah in Allendale, South Caroline, a site known as the Topper archaeological site shows that charcoal and other human artefacts were already in use some 50,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of these materials has shown that humans were already in existence some 40,000 years before the purported time of entry into the new world. In fact, it implies that humans already inhabited the New World years before the last glacial period. The implication is that the Clovis culture and the migration models based on it may be ineffective in explaining the migration of humans into Americas. Nevertheless, these new evidences have also been a topic of debate over the last few years. For instance, some studies indicate that charcoal could have resulted from wild fires while geofacts could be mistaken for human artefacts. In fact, it is evident that the region experienced several wildfires caused b y the natural processes years before the entry of first humans in the New World (Heaton 2005). Apart from the Clovis culture model, a number of other theories have been developed with the hope of providing alternative explanations for migration from Eurasia to Americas. The watercraft migrations models are important in explain how humans reached the New World from the populated regions in Asia and Europe. The Pacific coastal model argues that human populations travelled along the coastal regions, which made it possible to reach North America. According to the proponents of this theory, it is clear that coastlines provided the human populations with a good and friendly environment for humans because they support a wide range of resources, including plants and animals (Heaton 2005). Both terrestrial and aquatic lives were protected and maintained at the coastlines, which means that human populations depended on the coastlines for their food. The model attempts to show that humans move d along the coast both on land and on using watercrafts to reach various regions between Asia and America. It explains how the human populations colonised distant regions new Bering point, including the Taima-Taime region in Venezuela as well as the controversial Monte Verde region in Chile. Archaeological excavations have found two layers of cultural components at the Monte Verde site in Chile, which have led to the hypothesis that the Pacific coastal models must have been the most possible routes of migration. The youngest layer is dated about 14,000 years old. It contains various kinds of seaweeds that were used by the coastal inhabitants. The older layer was found to be more than 30,000 years, but it is highly controversial and not used as strong evidence to support the Pacific coastal migration hypothesis (Dixon 2005). The Solutrean Hypothesis A third theory attempts to provide some additional information regarding the migration of the Eurasian populations into the Americas. Kn own as the Solutrean hypothesis, the explanation suggest that the migration did not involve Asian groups, but rather the groups came from Europe across the Atlantic. In fact, the term Solutrean is derived from a culture that was existed in Europe some 18,000 to 20,000 years ago. The possible route must have involved boat and raft migration across the Atlantic before moving down beyond the periglacial environment in the eastern parts of the modern day Canada. Although this hypothesis provides an alternative to the Asia-America migration routes, it has a number of weaknesses. For instance, it lacks biological evidence because most of the indigenous people in North America are biologically related to Asian populations rather than European groups. In addition, the indigenous populations in North America and Asia have a number of general similarities such as cultural attributes. For instance, the stone tool technologies in these two regions are similar especially those developed between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago (Jones 2005). These have been located in various parts of Beringia and north-west parts of North America. On the other hand, there is little archaeological evidence linking the Indigenous groups in America with those of Europe, which suggests that the Solutrean migration theory is not viable. Most archaeologists argue that there are few similarities in stone tools and technologies between the Europeans and North American populations some 20,000 years ago cannot be used to explain the routes of migration into the new world. The Paleoindian hypothesis The Paleoindians of the coast (East Asians) migration model, attempts to show that the earliest humans to reach North America originated from East Asia and were largely boat builders (Stanford and Bradley 2011). Some scholars suggest that boast building communities used crude boats to reach as far south as Chile. For instance, the theory shows that in the coast of British Columbia, a human population known as the Haida that colonized Queen Charlotte Islands must have been one of the groups that used this migratory route from Asia. It is estimated that the group were descendants of early Asian miners that left Asia between 24,000 and 10,000 years ago. Like the Clovis migration models, the watercraft migration models have a number of weaknesses that make them less effective in determining the exact routes and processes of human migration from Eurasia to the New World. For instance, this theory cannot explain how humans and animals survived along the coastlines after the glaciations that submerged most coastal regions by more than 100 meters. For instance, it is clear that sea levels in the world have risen by more than 100 meters after the end of the last glaciations period, which has led to submergence of the old coastlines. These are the coastlines thought to have been used by the migrating groups, which make it difficult to explain how the migrations took place (Dixon 2009). Secondly, i t is worth noting that the theories lack archaeological evidence to support their claims. For instance, there are few sites associated with these migrations and it has become difficult for scientists to discover new sites along the coastlines. In addition, it is worth noting that the former coastlines are now submerged, which means that it is difficult to excavate sites under the water. In addition, genetic studies have shown that some of these theories do not apply at all because there is little evidence to link some European or Asian groups with the indigenous Americans. With genetic studies, it has been shown that some theories like the Solutrean are unlikely and wrong. In the next section, a review of genetic linkages will be developed to show the relationships between the indigenous Americans and some human populations in Asia (Jablonski 2002). Genetic evidence and population linkage theory The development of strong genetic studies, including the polymerised chain reaction and molecular markers improved the process of determining linkages between different organisms. In studying human populations and their relationships, these technologies have proved effective in solving some problems in anthropology and archaeology. Most genetic studies focussing on indigenous Americans are based on the human Y-Chromosome DNA halogroups as well AS HAPLOGROUPS OF Human mitochondrial DNA (Eshleman, Ripan and Smith 2003). These use these groups to determine the relationship between indigenous Americans and other populations in other parts of the world. For instance, according to Perego, Angerhofer, Pala, Olivieri et al (2010), a growing number of mitochondrial genomes from Beringia indicate that human populations migrated from Asia to America through the Beringian routes. Haplogroup C1 of human mitochondrial DNA for Asian and indigenous Americans were sequenced and found to have two C1 halogroups as the founder genomes foe the Paleo-Indians. This study indicates that the A merican natives are closely related with some Asian populations and not European groups. In addition, other studies have shown that several gene linkages, founding halotypes and a wide range of homozygosity and heterozygosity are evident. They indicate that human populations spread from Asia to America through Beringia and involved coastline and inland settlements. For instance, the Alaskans, Inuit and Na-Dene exhibit mutations in their haplogroup Q of their Y-chromosomes. This phenomenon is also evident in some Asian groups but missing in European or African populations. Conclusion This paper indicates that American natives are closely related to a number of Asian groups. Several theories such as the Pacific Rim, Biringia, Solutrean and others have attempted to develop models that explain how the Asian groups reached America. However, genetic studies appear to show that watercraft theories are unlikely, but Clovis migration patterns are important. References Cited Burns, J, 2006. V ertebrate Paleontology and the Alleged Ice-Free Corridor: The Meat of the Matter. Quaternary International 32: 107-112. Dickason, Olive, 2007.  Canadas First Nations: A History of the Founding Peoples from the Earliest Times. Oxford University Press, New York Dillehay, T. 1994. A Late Ice-Age Settlement in Southern Chile. Scientific American 25:100-109. Dixon, James, 2003.  Quest for the Origins of the First Americans. University of New Mexico Press, New Mexico. Dixon, James, 2005.  Bones, Boats, and Bison: the Early Archeology of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press, New Mexico. Dixon, James, 2009.  Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Erlandson, J, 1994.  Early Hunter-Gatherers of the California Coast. Plenum Press, New York, NY. Erlandson, Jon, 2001. The Archaeology of Aquatic Adaptations: Paradigms for a New Millennium. Journal of Archaeological Research, 9 : 287–350. Erlandson, Jon, 2004.  Early Hunter-Gatherers of the California Coast. Plenum Press, New York. Erlandson, Jon, Graham, H, Bruce Bourque, Debra Corbett, and James A. Estes, 2007. The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, The Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 2: 161–174. Eshleman, Jason, Ripan Malhi, and David Smith, 2003. Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas. Evolutionary Anthropology, 12:7–18 Fladmark, R. 2000.  Times and Places: Environmental Correlates of Mid-to-Late Wisconsin Human Population Expansion in North America. Sage Publication, Beverly Hills. Gruhn, R. 2004.  The Pacific Coast Route of Initial Entry: An Overview. Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Oregon State University, Corvallis. Heaton, T. 2005, Mid dle Wisconsin Bear and Rodent Remains Discovered on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska. Current Research in the Pleistocene 12:92-95. Jablonski, Newman, 2002.  In The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. Jones, Peter 2005. Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Bauu Institute Press, New York. Muckle, Robert, 2010.  Indigenous Peoples of North America. University of Toronto Press, Toronto. Perego, Ugo, Norman Angerhofer, Maria Pala, Anna Olivieri, and Hovirag Lancioni, et al., 2010 The initial peopling of the Americas: A growing number of founding mitochondrial genomes from Beringia. Genome Research 20: 1174-1179. Stanford, D and Bruce A. Bradley, 2011.  Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of Americas Clovis Culture. University of California Press, Berkerly Stanford, D and Bruce Bradely, 2012.  Pre-Clovis First Americans: The Origin of Americas Clovi s Culture. University of California Press, Berkerly

Summary for Iraq Politics Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary for Iraq Politics Paper - Essay Example Issues of oil have also dominated international debates and Iraqi’s influence on the entire world economy. This paper seeks to assess the Iraqi situation in the past, present, and the future, in the light of the research questions presented below. The above questions are based on conflict avoidance and conflict resolution in the Middle East, especially Iraq (Anderson, Seibert and Wagner 105). This country holds a significant percentage of an important resource; oil. One, Iraq has not had political stability for quite some time. It has also engaged in wars and violation of human rights. Using this as an excuse, a number of countries have been observed to want to control the Iraqi oil fields (Pelletiere 48). For instance, the US has installed a peacekeeping initiative in Iraq. However, over and above the peace mission, US have also been observed expressing interest in one way or another to control the rich Iraqi oil fields. The specific role and interest of the US in Iraq is ambiguous, and the US’s benefits or harm to Iraq needs critical analysis. THERE IS A GLOBAL ALLIANCE OF RULING ELITES WHICH IS ALSO IN COMPETITION WITH EACH OTHER OVER CONSUMER MARKETS, RAW MATERIALS, LABOR MARKETS. THIS IS THE CONCEPT KNOWN AS  "COMPETITOR PEERS† (Lecture: â€Å"Liberalism, Realism, theories of International Relations, and Neo-conservatism). However, the primary role of the US presence in Iraq has been to promote peace and stability of the nation Possible answers can be predetermined in relation to the research questions presented earlier. Failure to put a stable government in place and the violation of human rights from time to time have made Iraq what it is today (Smith 386). Even before the US made an entry into Iraq, this scenario had been observed.